Mongolia

Location

• Northern Asia, between China and Russia
• landlocked; strategic location between China and Russia

Population

Notable Population Centers

City	Population	Note
Ulan Bator	844,818	Capital
Erdenet	97,814
Darhan	83,883
Choibalsan	44,835
Nalayh	39,579
Mörön	39,404
Bayanhongor	30,931
Ulaangom	30,092
Khovd	29,800
Arvayheer	29,420

Size

• 604,247 square miles
• 1,565,000 square kilometers
• slightly smaller than Alaska; more than twice the size of Texas

History

The peoples of Mongolia have a long history under a number of nomadic empires dating back to the Xiongnu in the 4th century B.C., and the name Mongol goes back to at least the 11th century A.D. The most famous Mongol, TEMÜÜJIN (aka Genghis Khan), emerged as the ruler of all Mongols in the early 1200s. By the time of his death in 1227, he had created through conquest a Mongol Empire that extended across much of Eurasia. His descendants, including ÖGÖDEI and KHUBILAI (aka Kublai Khan), continued to conquer Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the rest of China, where KHUBILAI established the Yuan Dynasty in the 1270s. The Mongols attempted to invade Japan and Java before their empire broke apart in the 14th century. In the 17th century, Mongolia fell under the rule of the Manchus of the Chinese Qing Dynasty. After Manchu rule collapsed in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, finally winning it in 1921 with help from the Soviet Union. Mongolia became a socialist state (the Mongolian People’s Republic) in 1924. Until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, Mongolia was a Soviet satellite state and relied heavily on economic, military, and political assistance from Moscow. The period was also marked by purges, political repression, economic stagnation, and tensions with China. Mongolia peacefully transitioned to an independent democracy in 1990. In 1992, it adopted a new constitution and established a free-market economy. Since the country's transition, it has conducted a series of successful presidential and legislative elections. Throughout the period, the ex-communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party -- which took the name Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) in 2010 -- has competed for political power with the Democratic Party and several other smaller parties. For most of its democratic history, Mongolia has had a divided government, with the presidency and the parliamentary majority held by different parties but that changed in 2021, when the MPP won the presidency after having secured a supermajority in parliament in 2020. Mongolia’s June 2021 presidential election delivered a decisive victory for MPP candidate Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH. Mongolia maintains close cultural, political, and military ties with Russia, while China is its largest economic partner. Mongolia’s foreign relations are focused on preserving its autonomy by balancing relations with China and Russia, as well as its other major partners, Japan, South Korea, and the US.

Climate

desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges)

Terrain

vast semidesert and desert plains, grassy steppe, mountains in west and southwest; Gobi Desert in south-central

Languages

Mongolian 90% (official, Khalkha dialect is predominant), Turkic, Russian (1999)major-language sample(s): Дэлхийн баримтат ном, үндсэн мэдээллийн зайлшгүй эх сурвалж. (Mongolian)The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.

Religions

Buddhist 51.7%, Muslim 3.2%, Shamanist 2.5%, Christian 1.3%, other 0.7%, none 40.6% (2020 est.)

Government

semi-presidential republic

• Constitution: history: several previous; latest adopted 13 January 1992, effective 12 February 1992amendment process: proposed by the State Great Hural, by the president of the republic, by the government, or by petition submitted to the State Great Hural by the Constitutional Court; conducting referenda on proposed amendments requires at least two-thirds majority vote of the State Great Hural; passage of amendments by the State Great Hural requires at least three-quarters majority vote; passage by referendum requires majority participation of qualified voters and a majority of votes 
• Political Parties and Leaders: n/a
• Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
• Legal System: civil law system influenced by Soviet and Romano-Germanic systems; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislative acts
• Executive Branch: chief of state: President Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH (since 25 June 2021)head of government: Prime Minister Gombojavyn ZANDANSHATAR (since 13 June 2025)cabinet: Cabinet directly appointed by the prime ministerelection/appointment process: presidential candidates nominated by political parties represented in the State Great Hural and directly elected by simple-majority popular vote for one 6-year term; following legislative elections, the State Great Hural usually elects the leader of the majority party or majority coalition as prime ministermost recent election date: 9 June 2021election results: 2021: Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH elected president in first round; percent of vote - Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH (MPP) 68%, Dangaasuren ENKHBAT (RPEC) 20.1%, Sodnomzundui ERDENE (DP) 6%2017:  Khaltmaa BATTULGA elected president in second round; percent of vote in first round - Khaltmaa BATTULGA (DP) 38.1%, Miyegombo ENKHBOLD (MPP) 30.3%, Sainkhuu GANBAATAR (MPRP) 30.2%, invalid 1.4%; percent of vote in second round - Khaltmaa BATTULGA 55.2%, Miyegombo ENKHBOLD 44.8%expected date of next election: 2027
• Judicial Branch: highest court(s): Supreme Court (consists of the Chief Justice and 24 judges organized into civil, criminal, and administrative chambers); Constitutional Court or Tsets (consists of the chairman and 8 members)judge selection and term of office: Supreme Court chief justice and judges appointed by the president on recommendation of the General Council of Courts -- a 14-member body of judges and judicial officials -- to the State Great Hural; appointment is for life; chairman of the Constitutional Court elected from among its members; members appointed from nominations by the State Great Hural - 3 each by the president, the State Great Hural, and the Supreme Court; appointment is 6 years; chairmanship limited to a single renewable 3-year termsubordinate courts: aimag (provincial) and capital city appellate courts; soum, inter-soum, and district courts; Administrative Cases Courts
• Legislative Branch: legislature name: State Great Hural (Ulsiin Ih Hural)legislative structure: unicameralnumber of seats: 126 (all directly elected)electoral system: mixed systemscope of elections: full renewalterm in office: 4 yearsmost recent election date: 6/28/2024parties elected and seats per party: Mongolian People's Party (MPP) (68); Democratic Party (DP) (42); HUN Party (8); Other (8)percentage of women in chamber: 25.4%expected date of next election: June 2028

Demographic Profile

n/a

Economy

• lower middle-income East Asian economy; large human capital improvements over last 3 decades; agricultural and natural resource rich; export and consumption-led growth; high inflation due to supply bottlenecks and increased food and energy prices; currency depreciation
• Budget: revenues: $4.721 billion (2021 est.)expenditures: $5.623 billion (2021 est.)note: central government revenues (excluding grants) and expenditures converted to US dollars at average official exchange rate for year indicated
• Credit Rating: n/a
• Natural Resources: oil, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, fluorspar, gold, silver, iron
• Industries: construction and construction materials; mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar, tin, tungsten, gold); oil; food and beverages; processing of animal products, cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing
• Agricultural Products: milk, wheat, lamb/mutton, potatoes, beef, carrots/turnips, goat milk, goat meat, bison milk, horse meat (2023)note: top ten agricultural products based on tonnage
• Land Use: agricultural land: 71.9% (2022 est.)arable land: 0.7% (2022 est.)permanent crops: 0% (2022 est.)permanent pasture: 71.2% (2022 est.)forest: 9.1% (2022 est.)other: 19% (2022 est.)
• Labor Force by Occupation: n/a
• Imports
• Imported Commodities: cars, trucks, trailers, tractors, construction vehicles (2023)note: top five import commodities based on value in dollars
• Import Partners: China 57%, Japan 13%, Germany 3%, Singapore 3%, USA 3% (2023)note: top five import partners based on percentage share of imports
• Exports
• Exported Commodities: coal, copper ore, gold, iron ore, crude petroleum (2023)note: top five export commodities based on value in dollars
• Export Partners: China 92%, Switzerland 6%, Italy 1%, Thailand 0%, Japan 0% (2023)note: top five export partners based on percentage share of exports